All religions have expressed positions on what is acceptable to put into human bodies as a means of intoxication for spiritual, pleasure, or medicinal purposes. See article entheogen for more about drug use in a religious or shamanistic context.
Many historians agree that the religious experience arose from plant/drug induced visions in early man. Many large modern religions are opposed to drug use for intoxication. Critics regard this modern position as coming from a desire to keep the priesthood in place as middlemen. According to this view, if individuals were able to take drugs and communicate with the divine directly, they could have religious experience free of ritual and dogma. This would violate religious hierarchy and upset the social order.
Many modern religions' views towards drug use for intoxication also come from cultural norms, and not from specifically expressed guidelines in the actual holy documents of said religions. For example, there are no lines in the Christian Bible which explicitly forbid drug use for intoxication.
Contents |
Many Ancient Greek mystery religions are hypothesized to have centered around the use of entheogen, such as the Kykeon central to the Eleusinian Mysteries. Recent research suggests that the prophesies of the Delphic Oracle were uttered by Priestesses under the influence of gaseous vapors.
Much of Hindu belief and practice grew out of the use of Soma, a god, plant, and drink which is the focus of the Rigveda. The continued entheogenic use of drugs such as Cannabis is not uncommon among various so-called Hindu sects. Cannabis is connected with the god Shiva who is said to have rested in the shade of the Cannabis plant on a particularly hot day. In gratitude Shiva gave the plant to mankind. Often the drink Bhang is drunk in Shiva's honor, it is a tea typically cooked with milk, spices, cannabis leaves and flowers. The leaves of the Kratom tree have also been used traditionally as an ingredient in a tea with mild stimulant and opioid properties.
Like other religions, Hinduism generally disapproves of the use of non-pharmaceutical drugs. In the past, however, drugs played an important part in worship. In the Vedas a drug called Soma was used as an offering and then drunk by the priests. The Vedic god Soma was the ‘master of plants’ and the ‘healer of disease’, in addition to a bringer of wealth. In later Hinduism, Soma was identified with the moon which waxes and wanes when the drug is drunk by the gods. Cannabis has been associated with the god Shiva who is said to have rested in the shade of a cannabis plant on a very hot day. Shiva gave the plant to humanity in thanks. Some Hindu mystics still use cannabis as an aid to spiritual experience.
Hindu beliefs about appropriate use of cannabis illustrate the capacity of cultural systems to order and direct the course of complex phenomenal events. Cannabis manifests diverse and contradictory effects. These depend not only on dose, frequency and route of administration, but also on subjective and cultural contexts (e.g., Pihl, Shea & Costa 1979). It may very well be that the contradictory results of modern research investigations on cannabis stem from the intricacy of these interactions. Given the current state of the art, paradigms of research methodology may very well be inadequate to develop an understanding of such a paradoxical drug. The Hindu cultural system, on the other hand, accommodates the ambiguities of cannabis through its own complex nature. It provides diverse niches through which antithetical effects of the drug are expressed. Cannabis is said to both interfere with motivation to work and facilitate it. A closer examination reveals that these actions are probably related to the way in which this motivation toward action is defined, and the level of use of the drug. While cannabis appears to interfere with execution of highly complex tasks and the long-range planning that accompanies them, it may facilitate concentrated focus on repetitive endeavors. In some commonsense way, it may be quite simply that it changes a user's sense of time and the span of the present as well as the sense of relative importance of present and future. So long as an individual is under the influence of this effect (and living in the context that s/he has structured as a result of it), the urgency of accomplishment in the Western sense is diminished. The Hindu belief system accommodates this by prescribing use in such a way that this effect becomes beneficial. A key factor is that low potency preparations (bhang, thandai) are available. It allows individuals with complex life tasks, goals and obligations to indulge in moderation. The drug is also taken in a ritualized context, facilitating concentration and relaxation. It is taken at times, such as in the evening or on holidays, in which focus on the immediate present is a welcome change. Use of the more potent preparations (ganja, charas) is not condoned for this group. Above all, moderation is enjoined and popular folk belief warns of the potential problems of excess. Ganja and charas are regarded more ambivalently as poisons or semipoisons. [1]
According to the fifth precept of the Pancasila, Buddhists are meant to refrain from any quantity of intoxicants which would prevent mindfulness or cause heedlessness.[2] In the Pali Tipitaka the precept is explicitly concerned with alcoholic beverages:
"I undertake the training rule to abstain from fermented drink that causes heedlessness."
Surāmerayamajjapamādaṭṭhānā veramaṇī sikkhāpadaṃ samādiyāmi.
By contrast, it is thoroughly understood by many Buddhists that the precepts are more often considered suggested aims to practice, rather than imperitives. (Buddhism is an atheistic religion which lacks the notion of an extant critical, punishing, or personalized divine force and relies on the concept of cause and effect – karma – as the basis for renunciant practice.) Moreover, as Buddhist philosophy and customs have a tendency to change over time (a trans-traditional pattern which appears to, and is often accepted to some degree as correlating with the concept of impermanence), and are quite dynamic spiritually, theoretically and culturally, the interpretation of what is deemed as an "intoxicant" or by what means one is lead to "heedlessness" varies greatly.
Many practitioners associated with the Theravada, for instance – particularly those who reside in countries and societies rooted in Buddhist ethics and values (i.e. Thailand, Sri Lanka, Burma, etc.) – hold more conservative beliefs regarding psychotropics. In this sense the use of intoxicants is shunned as an obstacle to mindfulness and an enlightened mind.
Caffeine in tea is permitted, even encouraged for monks of most traditions, as it is believed to promote wakefullness. [4]
Even many modern Buddhist schools have strongly discouraged the use of intoxicants of any kind; however, they may not be prohibited in all circumstances in all traditions. Some sects of Tantric or esoteric Buddhism especially exemplify the latter, often under the pretense of skillful means:
For example, as part of the ganachakra tsok ritual (as well as Homa, abhisheka and sometimes drubchen) some Tibetan Buddhists and Bönpos have been known to ingest small amounts of grain alcohol (called amrit or amrita) as an offering. If a member is an alcoholic, or for some other reason does not wish to partake in the drinking of the alcoholic offering, than he or she may dip a finger in the alcohol and then flick it three times, as part of the ceremony.
Amrita is also possibly the same as, or at least in some sense a conceptual derivative of the ancient Hindu soma. (The latter which historians often equate with Amanita muscaria or other Amanita psychedelic fungi.) Crowley (1996) states:
"Undoubtedly, the striking parallels between "The legend about Chakdor" and the Hindu legend of the origin of soma show that the Buddhist amrita and the Hindu soma were at one time understood to be identical. Moreover, the principal property of amrita is, to this day, perceived by Buddhists as being a species of inebriation, however symbolically this inebriation may be interpreted. Why else would beer (Tibetan chhang, "barley beer") be used by yogins as a symbolic substitute for amrita [Ardussi]? Conversely, why else would the term bDud.rTsi be used as a poetic synonym for beer?
Conversely, in Tibetan and Sherpa lore there is a story about a monk who came across a woman who told him that he must either:
(All of which are against the vows taken by Buddhist monks.)
The monk thought to himself, ' well, surely if I kill the goat then I will be causing great suffering since a living being will die. If I sleep with the woman then I will have broken another great vow of a monk and will surely be lost to the ways of the world. Lastly, if I drink the beer then perhaps no great harm will come and I will only be intoxicated for a while, and most importantly I will only be hurting myself. ' (In the context of the story this instance is of particular importance to him because monks try to bring all sentient beings to enlightenment as part of their goal.)
So the monk drank the mug of beer and then he became very drunk. In his drunkenness he proceeded to kill the goat and sleep with the woman, breaking all three vows and, at least in his eyes, doing much harm in the world. The lesson of this story is meant to be that, at least according to the cultures from which it delineates, alcohol causes one to break all of one's vows, in a sense that one could say it is the cause of all other harmful deeds. [3]
The Vajrayana teacher Drupon Thinley Ningpo Rinpoche has said that as part of the five vows which a layperson makes upon taking refuge, that although they must refrain from taking intoxicants, they may drink enough so as they do not become drunk. Bhikkus and Bhikkunis (monks and nuns, respectively), on the other hand, who have taken the ten vows as part of taking refuge and becoming ordained, cannot imbibe any amount of alcohol or other drugs, other than pharmaceuticals taken as medicine.
There is some evidence regarding the use of deliriant Datura seeds (known as candabija) in Dharmic rituals associated with many tantras – namely the Vajramahabhairava, Samputa, Mahakala, Guhyasamaja, Tara and Krsnayamari tantras – as well as cannabis and other entheogens in minority Vajrayana sanghas. [5]
In the Ngagpa tradition of Nyingmapa school of Tibetan Buddhism – the Pancasila is wholly presented from the point of view of Dzogchen; as such the fifth precept is re-defined as "to refrain from the intoxication of duality, and to become drunken with primordial wisdom". Also Padmasambhava, one of the forefathers of Tibetan Buddhism, is said to have tested the mahasiddha Yeshe Tsogyal with a range of medicinal substances to see if she could hold her clarity while in altered states. He furthermore, according to lore, subjugated Rahu (the tantric deity of drug and poison dealers) to serve as a protector of the Dzogchen teachings.
The Japanese Zen monk, shakuhachi player and great poet Ikkyu was known for his unconventional take on Zen Buddhism: His style of expressing dharma is sometimes deemed "Red Thread Zen" for its unorthodox characteristics. Ikkyu is considered both a heretic and saint in the Rinzai Zen tradition, and was known for his derogatory poetry, open alcoholism and for frequenting the services of prostitutes in brothels. He personally found no conflict between his lifestyle and Buddhism.
There are several koans (Zen riddles) referencing the drinking of sake; for instance Mumonkan's tenth koan titled Seizei Is Utterly Destitute:
'Seizei said to Sozan, "Seizei is utterly destitute. Will you give him support?" Sozan called out: "Seizei!" Seizei responded, "Yes sir?!" Sozan said, "You have finished three cups of the finest wine in China, and still you say you have not yet moistened your lips!"'
Another monk, Gudo, is mentioned in a koan called Finding a Diamond on a Muddy Road buying a gallon of sake.
Yet another koan, called A Buddha, goes as follows:
'In Tokyo in the Meiji era there lived two prominent teachers of opposite characteristics. One, Unsho, an instructor in Shingon, kept Buddha's precepts scrupulously. He never drank intoxicants, nor did he eat after eleven o'clock in the morning. The other teacher, Tanzan, a professor of philosophy at the Imperial University, never observed the precepts. Whenever he felt like eating, he ate, and when he felt like sleeping in the daytime he slept. One day Unsho visited Tanzan, who was drinking wine at the time, not even a drop of which is suppposed to touch the tongue of a Buddhist. "Hello, brother," Tanzan greeted him. "Won't you have a drink?" "I never drink!" exclaimed Unsho solemnly. "One who does not drink is not even human," said Tanzan. "Do you mean to call me inhuman just because I do not indulge in intoxicating liquids!" exclaimed Unsho in anger. "Then if I am not human, what am I?" "A Buddha," answered Tanzan.'
Judaism maintains that people do not own their bodies - they belong to God. As a result, Jews are not permitted to harm, mutilate, destroy or take risks with their bodies, life or health with activities such as taking life-threatening drugs. However, there is no general prohibition against drugs in Judaism, as long as they don't interfere with one's ritual duties and don't cause definite harm, though most Rabbis generally prohibit drugs, in order to avoid social, legal and medical problems in their community.
Spiritual use of various alcoholic beverages, sometimes in very large quantities, is common and well known. In some Jewish communities all adult men are required to get drunk on Purim until they forget the difference between the Hebrew phrases "Cursed is Haman" and "Blessed is Mordechai", which signified reaching the spiritual world Atzilut where all opposites unite. In many Jewish communities it is customary to drink on Simchat Torah as well. Drinking in small quantities as a mind-altering practice is commonly used during the Farbrengens of the Habad Hasidim. A large body of Habad literature refers to the spiritual dangers of drinking, but a few anecdotal references refer to the spirutal power of alcohol, when used for the sake of connecting to God and achieving brotherly love among fellows Jews. The Lubavitcher Rebbe forbade his Chassidim under the age of 40 to consume more than 4 small shots of hard liquers, but this prohibition is commonly ignored.
[4] Wine plays a prominent role in many Jewish rituals, most notably the kiddush. Hasidic Jews often engage in a free ceremony called "Tisch" in which drinks such as Vodka are drunk in a group. Drinking is accompanied by singing and the study of the Torah.
Some Hasidic Rabbis, e.g. the Ribnitzer Rebbe used to drink large amounts of Vodka on some special occasions, apparently as a powerful mind-altering method. The Ribnitzer Rebbe also practiced severe sleep deprivation, extremely long meditative prayers and a number of ascetic purification rituals. During his life in the USSR he used to immerse himself every day in ice water.
The spiritual use of caffeine and nicotine as stimulants is well known in the Hasidic communities. Many stories are told about miracles and spiritual journeys performed by the Baal Shem Tov and other famous Tzaddikim with the help of their smoking pipe. Some people suggest that, judging by the nature of these stories, the tobacco was sometimes mixed with strong mind-altering drugs. [5][6]
A popular Hasidic saying relates coffee to the Psalmic verse "Hope in God". The Hebrew word for "hope" ("Kave") sounds identical to the Yiddish word for coffee. Coffee is believed to have power to awaken the soul to the worship of God.
Some Kabbalists, including Isaac of Acco and Abraham Abulafia, mention a method of "philosophical meditation", which involves drinking a cup of "strong wine of Avicenna", which would induce a trance and would help the adept to ponder over difficult philosophical questions.[7] The exact recipe of this wine remains unknown; Avicenna refers in his works to the effects of opium and datura extracts.
Rabbi Aryeh Kaplan, a prominent researcher of Jewish meditations, mentions in his books LSD and mescaline as a source of positive spiritual experience. He suggested that some medieval Kabbalists used some psychedelic drugs, though it was discouraged by the more conservative mystics.[8][9] Indeed, one can find in Kabbalistic medical manuals cryptic references to the hidden powers of mandrake, harmal and other psychoactive plants, though the exact usage of these powers is hard to decipher.
According to Aryeh Kaplan,[10] cannabis was an ingredient in the Holy anointing oil mentioned in various sacred Hebrew texts. The herb of interest is most commonly known as kaneh-bosem (קְנֵה-בֹשֶׂם [11]) which is mentioned several times in the Old Testament as a bartering material, incense, and an ingredient in Holy anointing oil used by the high priest of the temple. Many Rastafarians, who use cannabis as a sacriment, identify as Jewish.
Occasional use of cannabis is accepted as a spiritual tool by some Breslov Hasidim, especially on Purim, as well as among some Sephardic Jews.
According to Josephus, the head-dress of the Jewish High Priests' was modeled upon the capsule of the Hyoscyamus flower, which he calls "Saccharus". This Greek word for sugar stems from the Hebrew root that means "intoxicating".[12]
Benny Shanon, a psychology professor at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, proposed that Moses may have been high on hallucinogenic mushrooms at the time he received the Ten Commandments.[13]
Most Christian denominations disapprove of the use of most illicit drugs.
There are some suggestions that the Bible may refer to it. Dr. Sara Benetowa (1903–1982), a Polish anthropologist, asserted that the Hebrew word kaneh-bosm actually referred to cannabis. In 1980, Israel’s Hebrew University, in Jerusalem, confirmed it as a possible valid interpretation.[14] The holy anointing oil, used for anointment during rites (e.g. baptism, christening, marriage, ordination, and unction ceremonies), may have contained cannabis extracts. Hemp is listed as an incense tree in the Old Testament. Many Rastafari, who use cannabis as a sacrement, also identify as Oriental Orthodox Christians.
Many Christian denominations exclude the moderate use of socially and legally acceptable drugs like alcohol, caffeine, and tobacco. Some Christian denominations also exclude smoking tobacco; while others disapprove of it entirely. Although many denominations do not have any official stance on drug use, some more-recent Christian denominations (e.g. Mormons, Seventh-day Adventists, and Jehovah’s Witnesses) discourage or prohibit the use of any of these substances.
Because Jesus and many Biblical figures drank wine, most Christian denominations do not require teetotalism. Indeed, in the Eucharist wine represents (or, among Christians who believe in some form of Real Presence, like the Catholic and Orthodox churches, actually is) the blood of Christ. On the other hand, some Christian denominations, notably Methodists associated with the temperance movement, use grape juice instead.
The best known Western/Christian prohibition against alcohol happened in the United States in the 1920s, where concerned prohibitionists were worried about its dangerous side effects. However, the demand for alcohol was massive and a new class of criminals stepped in and created the supply. The consequences in violence, damages, organized crime, and lawbreaking, were severe; this, combined with the popular demand for alcohol, led to alcohol being legalized again. However, it should be noted that America was founded on secular Enlightenment principles.
Islam prohibits all drugs that are not medically prescribed.[15] Islam's prohibition of drugs[16] stems from two concerns:
There are numerous verses in the Qur'an and hadith that ban intoxicants (including alcohol). The prophet Muhammad said:[16]
Every intoxicant is like alcohol, and every (type of) alcohol is prohibited. (Muslim)
The second reason for banning drugs is that they are believed to have a harmful effect on the body. The Qur'an says,
"And make not your own hands contribute to your destruction." Surah, Al-Baqara, 2: 195
The Muslim nations of Turkey and Egypt were instrumental in banning opium, cocaine, and cannabis when the League of Nations (the forerunner of the United Nations) committed to the 1925 International Convention relating to opium and other drugs (later the 1934 Dangerous Drugs Act). The primary goal was to ban opium and cocaine, but cannabis was added to the list, and it remained there largely unnoticed due to the much more heated debate over opium and coca. The 1925 Act has been the foundation upon which every subsequent policy in the United Nations has been founded. Cannabis use and abuse as an intoxicant was largely unknown in the West at that point, but Islamic leaders have been critical of it since the 13th century.
O You who believe! Intoxicants and gambling, (dedication of) stones and (divination by) arrows are an abomination of Satan’s handiwork. Avoid (such abominations) that you may prosper. (5:90)
Satan’s plan is to sow hatred and enmity amongst you with intoxicants and gambling, and to hamper you from the remembrance of Allah and from prayer. Will you not give up? (5:91)
There are no prohibitions in Islam on alcohol for scientific, industrial or automotive use.
Bahá'ís are forbidden to drink alcohol or to take drugs, unless prescribed by doctors. Accordingly, the sale and trafficking of such substances is also forbidden. Smoking is discouraged but not prohibited.
Many Rastafarians believe cannabis, which they call "ganja", "the herb," or "Kaya" is a sacred gift of Jah and may be used for spiritual purposes to commune with God but should not be used profanely. However, other drugs, including alcohol, are frowned upon. Many believe that the wine Jesus/Iyesus drank was not an alcoholic beverage but simply the juice of grapes, or other fruits.
Alcoholic drink is commonly used during Asatru blots but non alcoholic drink can be substituted. [6] [7]
LaVeyan Satanism expressly forbids drug use, both on medical grounds and because they are generally counter-productive. While LaVey accepted there was historical and anthropological evidence that drugs were used for religious and ritual magical purposes, they did not fit in his definition of magic as he saw it. In an interview with the Almede County Weekender in 1966, He said:
"LaVey, however, does not hesitate to point out that nothing narcotic is among the ingredients. In fact, the use of any narcotics has no place in magic as LaVey sees it. “It is true that drugs have been used in magic and in certain religious practices and still are by some,” he says. “The use of the peyote ritual in certain Indian churches—and which has been recently adjudged legal—is an example. But for our purposes the use of drugs would be definitely harmful.” How serious he is on this point is shown by his attitude on LSD. “Like opium, marijuana, heroin and so forth, it ought to be shunned like the plague”—"
In The Satanic Witch, LaVey argued:
“Let me state categorically at this point that drugs are antithetical to the practice of magic, as they tend to disassociate the user from reality, even though he oftentimes thinks himself closer.”
However, there are no prohibitions on alcohol or anything prescribed by a doctor to treat a medical condition.